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READ: Was There Ever a ‘Dark Age’?

Have there ever been extended periods in human history when innovation slows dramatically or completely stops? Some have made a case for a “dark age” in Europe during this era but does the historical evidence point to something different?
The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here.

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Fill out the Skimming for Gist section of the Three Close Reads Worksheet as you complete your first close read. As a reminder, this should be a quick process!

Second read: key ideas and understanding content

For this reading, you should be looking for unfamiliar vocabulary words, the major claim and key supporting details, and analysis and evidence. By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:
  1. What were the political effects of the fall of the Roman Empire? What organized European communities after the Empire?
  2. How did relationships form the basis of feudalism?
  3. What intellectual achievements occurred during the medieval period?
  4. How do cities provide evidence that medieval Europe wasn’t experiencing a dark age?
  5. Did China have a Dark Age?
  6. Name one society mentioned in this article that you think didn’t experience a Dark Age. What evidence can you provide to defend your claim?
  7. How did the Afro-Eurasian population change from 476 to 1176 CE? What might this indicate?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

At the end of the third close read, respond to the following questions:
  1. How would evidence from this article extend, support, or challenge the production and distribution frame?
  2. What does the author of this article argue about the label of the medieval “Dark Age”? Does the author consider it useful and accurate? Do you find the author’s argument convincing? Why or why not?
Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading.

Was There Ever a “Dark Age”?

Painting of a city near the sea. Boats transport people and goods on the water, and there is a long wharf. Many buildings and houses are behind a stone wall, and there is a stone castle on the other side of the wharf.
Bridgette Byrd O'Connor
Have there ever been extended periods in human history when innovation slows dramatically or completely stops? Some have made a case for a "dark age" in Europe during this era but does the historical evidence point to something different?
In the article that precedes this one, you read about the debate over the term "Dark Ages". In particular, you learned how it has been applied to the European Middle Ages. However, is it appropriate to call any historical period a "Dark Age"? Have there ever been extended periods in human history when innovation slows dramatically or completely stops?
In order to investigate this further, we should first start with a question: What was life like in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire?
With the fall of the Roman Empire, there was a power vacuum in Europe. The Roman political and military machinery that had provided order and security for so long was gone. This simply meant that there was no longer a large empire in power to keep up a regular army and make sure that its citizens were protected and the borders were secure. The Germanic tribes that had helped bring about the end of the Roman Empire were still around, and this led to instability in many areas of Europe for some time. No empire immediately emerged to replace Rome. But does this constitute a "Dark Age"?

Medieval European Communities and Networks

In the absence of strong centralized leadership, feudalism developed. Feudalism was a more decentralized type of political, military, and social organization. This system depended on relationships between people with differing status or power. One person pledged to support another person in a particular way, and each received something from the other in return for this support. What you could give depended on your status and wealth. For example, a knight might pledge to fight when needed in exchange for land from the king. A relationship like this was typically formalized in writing. This was called a "feudal contract" and made clear the obligations of each individual to the other. These knights would then make similar agreements with people who were lower on the social ladder than they were. These types of arrangements, or symbiotic relationships, proved to be beneficial to all people, even if some benefitted more than others.
A painting of two people conversing with a knight that is dressed in all blue. The knight is carrying a brightly colored shield.
“Cleric, Knight, and Peasant” from a French illuminated manuscript Li Livres dou Santé, late thirteenth century. By British Library/Bridgeman Art Library, public domain.
Another consequence of the power vacuum created by the fall of Rome was an increase in the importance of the church in day-to-day life. The church was an institution with power and resources. It was capable of providing some of the services that had previously been provided by Rome. The Catholic Church controlled educational institutions and cathedrals. It even had a powerful influence on towns and kings.
So the period from the fall of Rome to the Renaissance was very different from what had come before, but was it "dark"?

Culture and Society in the Middle Ages

In agriculture, a number of inventions helped improve the productivity of farming. These inventions allowed farmers in Europe to farm previously challenging lands. Among these inventions were the horse collar, horseshoes, and the heavy plow. But technological innovations were not the only accomplishments of this era.
This era also saw the establishment of the first universities in Europe. These were established in Bologna (1088 CE), Salamanca (1134 CE), Paris (1150 CE), and Oxford (1167 CE). The Crusades opened communication between Christians and Jewish and Muslim scholars. This resulted in the recovery of important works by writers like Aristotle and Ptolemy. These works were then translated into Latin. The printing press did not yet exist in Europe. But many Christian monks and nuns copied great works of religion, literature, history, and other disciplines by hand.
European society during this era was hierarchical. Most people were farmers, traders, and artisans (commoners), while a small group of wealthy people made up the aristocracy. The rulers were kings and queens. They held an incredible amount of power. But the clergy was also an important social class at this time. Women were often relegated to traditional roles of wife and mother, although there were some powerful queens. One example is Eleanor of Aquitaine. She was the queen of both France and England in the twelfth century. Most people were illiterate during this era. But these numbers declined for members of both sexes when it came to the aristocracy and the clergy. Many women became nuns and lived in convents in medieval Europe. These convents provided women some education.

Medieval Economic Networks

The growth of cities in this period is another sign of the vitality of the age. Cities became important centers for the production of crafts such as textiles, iron and metal work, and pottery. Cities also served as homes to grand cathedrals. These cathedrals were built in major towns for a variety of reasons: to praise God, to be a refuge for the people in hard times, and to bring business to the town. If a town had a particularly spectacular cathedral, especially one that had a holy relic that was known to be miraculous, then hundreds of people would journey to the town on a pilgrimage. These travelers or pilgrims would bring in a great deal of money to the local shops and businesses of the town.
Some cities prospered through trade during this time. Italy, in particular the city-state of Venice, became extremely wealthy from the Crusades. Venetians were responsible for most of the shipbuilding during this era. They also established a lucrative trade agreement with the Ottomans after the wars ended.
Painting of a crowded market. People are selling many food items, presented in large baskets and barrels.
Medieval market, painting by Pieter Aertsen, sixteenth century. By Web Gallery of Art, public domain.

Was There a “Dark Ages” Outside of Europe?

There is a lot of evidence that could be used to refute the idea that some or all of the European Middle Ages was a "Dark Age." What about the rest of the world? Is there evidence that other societies experienced a "Dark Age" at this time?
In China, the "Dark Ages" didn't really exist at all. You'll remember from the article "Between the Han and the Tang" in Era 4 that China was in a state of disarray after the end of the Han dynasty in 220 CE. Because of the fall of this dynasty, trade along the Silk Road trade networks suffered. There were no longer large empires to maintain the roads and no large army to help protect merchants and travelers. It wasn't until the Tang dynasty rose to power in the early seventh century CE that prolonged stability returned to China and the Silk Roads. Trade along these networks also benefited from the expansion of the Muslim empire in the Middle East. The Tang Empire lasted almost 300 years. During this time the Chinese expanded their territory, maintained the roads and canals that were necessary for trade, and the population soared.
The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) rose to power after the demise of the Tang. While the Song emperors ruled over a smaller land area, the empire still became very wealthy. During this time the Chinese population doubled thanks to agricultural improvements including the cultivation of a new strain of rice. It was also during the reign of the Tang and Song that the Chinese went on an inventing spree: gunpowder, advances in printing, the magnetic compass, and paper money. International trade flourished. Internally, China had a stable government with well-trained bureaucrats. However, even with all of these accomplishments, the Song could not keep—as John Green would say, "wait for it"—the Mongols out of China.
The Mongols had plagued the northern borders of China for many years. Chinggis Khan organized raids and eventually took monetary payoffs from the Chinese to stop attacking them. Chinggis never fulfilled his goal of conquering China; however, in 1279 CE his grandson Kublai Khan finally achieved this goal. Once Kublai Khan conquered all of China, he decided to govern from China. He established a new Mongolian–Chinese dynasty called the Yuan (1271–1368 CE). During this period, a Mongol leader controlled the area from the Persian Empire to China. This meant that the area along the Silk Road routes was stable and safe. As a result, foreign trade increased and China became very wealthy, as Chinese products were some of the most sought-after goods in Afro-Eurasia.
Pieces of paper or parchment featuring written text.
Formula for gunpowder from Wujing Zongyao, a Chinese military manuscript from the eleventh century CE. By PericlesofAthens, public domain.
China was not the only state with flourishing culture during this time. The Abbasid Empire (750–1258 CE) was also an impressive one. From its capital city of Baghdad—founded in 762 CE—leaders promoted commerce, industry, arts, and science. Abbasid rulers were particularly interested in supporting learning. They established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic.
In Southeast Asia, the Khmer Empire (802–1431 CE) contributed many impressive cultural achievements. Perhaps their biggest achievement was building the temple complex at Angkor Wat. This temple complex recreated Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods. The Khmer also maintained a complex irrigation network to control water and ensure it was available for rice production. Rice was the focus of their agricultural work. Ghana (700–1240 CE) flourished in West Africa due in part to its strategic location on salt and gold trade routes in West Africa. Islam played an important role in the empire, and Muslim scholars made valuable bookkeeping and literary contributions to the administration of the empire.
In addition, we could use population growth as an indicator of the health and stability of Afro-Eurasia. In that case, the period from 476 to 1176 CE showed great progress. The population of this world zone increased from approximately 272 million in 476 CE to 407 million in 1176 CE. While the growth rate slowed in some regions during certain time periods, this was mainly due to plague outbreaks or wars. These are events that occur throughout history and aren't just confined to the Middle Ages.
So what do you think? Given that cultural, agricultural, and economic achievements continued during this era, did any portion of Afro-Eurasia experience a truly "Dark Age"?
Author bio
Bridgette Byrd O’Connor holds a DPhil in history from the University of Oxford and has taught Big History, World History, and AP U.S. Government and Politics for the past ten years at the high school level. She is also a freelance writer and editor for the Big History Project and the Crash Course World History and U.S. History curriculums.

Want to join the conversation?

  • boggle blue style avatar for user x.asper
    In the last paragraph, the author stated that population growth is a good sign of development. What about overpopulation? This is a major issue today. But that doesn't mean we're overdeveloped. Possibly, it could mean that we have to innovate. Can someone help me out?
    (3 votes)
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  • leaf blue style avatar for user LegoSonicZX
    What does the author of this article argue about the label of the medieval “Dark Age”? Does the author consider it useful and accurate? Do you find the author’s argument convincing? Why or why not?
    (2 votes)
    Default Khan Academy avatar avatar for user
  • leaf green style avatar for user Leo Williams
    In the section, "Feudal Communities and Networks" the author describes that, "In the absence of strong centralized leadership, feudalism developed." I know that, up until the Viking Age, feudalism hadn't been implemented on a massive scale in Europe. It was first a response by the Carloginian empire which found itself unable to handle continual Viking raids. This system then spread throughout Europe over time. Is the "power vacuum" the author is talking about one of the Roman Empire and strong states or of smaller successor states becoming more decentralized in response to raids by external factors?
    (1 vote)
    Default Khan Academy avatar avatar for user